Longitudinal analysis of dynamic relationships between working from home, commute distance, mode preference, and car use

Abstract

The transition to low-carbon emission mobility has emerged as a key objective, encouraging carbonneutral lifestyles and shifts from car use to more sustainable modes of transport. Although the role of the built environment and life events on mode shifts is recognized, the impact of working from home (WFH) on modal shifts remains unclear and longitudinal investigations are needed to explore the dynamic relationships. This study provides a six-year longitudinal analysis in the Netherlands, using random intercept cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM) to separate stable between-person differences from within-person changes over time. The findings show the temporal stability of WFH and car use, while commute distance and mode preference fluctuate. WFH tends to reduce car use, and individuals with longer commuting distance are more likely to do WFH. Gender, age, education, distance to public transport, urbanity, job changes, and childbirth also significantly shape evolving travel patterns.