Household Structure Predicts Cycling Gender Heterogeneities among French Bicycle Owners

Abstract

The cycling gender gap and bicycle ownership-usage mismatch represent critical bottlenecks, particularly in France’s sustainable mobility transition, as nearly a third of privately-owned bicycles are unused. This study utilizes a nationally representative sample of the 2019 French National Travel Survey (4817 males; 3494 female bike owners) to investigate behavioral heterogeneities. Partial Proportional Odds models estimate cycling frequency, controlling for age, commuting, residential density, and car ownership. Males exhibit baseline odds of cycling frequency 3 times higher than females across all thresholds. However, distinct gendered drivers emerge: while complex household structures correlate with increased frequency for men, the presence of children induces cycling frequency for females. Higher income decreases the odds of frequent cycling by 25% for males and 35% for females. Observably, e-bike adoption strongly increases cycling frequency. These suggest that the e-bike is a vital bridge to overcome car usage inelasticity and mitigate household structural barriers, toward gender-equitable cycling.