A macro-scale cluster analysis of metro-based Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) patterns in Chinese and Latin American cities

Abstract

Metro services shape urban built environments, but comparative macro‑scale studies across developing regions remain scarce. This research evaluates 64 cities (42 Chinese, 22 Latin American) using hierarchical and k‑means clustering across three scenarios: density of metro services, metro area coverage (400 m buffer), and network extensiveness per population. Four distinct city‑metro interaction typologies emerge. Mega Chinese cities show high node‑high place patterns (Cluster C3), while medium‑sized Latin American cities exhibit intermediate node‑place balance (Cluster C4) – a previously undocumented potential for pedestrian‑oriented TOD. The study demonstrates that walkability proxies (400 m buffer) can be operationalized at macro scale, and that compact urban form is a necessary condition for effective TOD, even with limited metro coverage. Findings provide actionable typologies for context‑specific infrastructure and pedestrian policies.